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mtill IBooU on ©reat g>ufuects* 

EDITED BY A FEW WELL WISHERS 
TO KNOWLEDGE. 

? 

N°. I. 



PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES 

AND PHILOSOPHICAL 

EXPERIENCE. 



BY A PARIAH. 




LONDON: C 
WILLIAM PICKERING. 

1841. 






CHISWICK : 

PRINTED BY C. WHITTINGHAM. 




ERRATA. 

f^tge 1, line 19, for ' pound' read ' pounds ' 

26, 12, for ' than ' read ' then ' 

28, 19, for ' setumque ' read ' caetumque' 

34, 10, for ' nend ' read l friend * 

58, 20, for ' unmitigable ' read * immitigable ' 

62, last line, for ' the ' read * this ' 

63, 16, for ' for' read * from ' 
69, 8, for * mud ' read ' insect ' 
90, note, for ' A.mobius ' read ' Arnobius ' 

and passim, read * phenomena 'for * phosnomena.' 



country are seized with a periodical fit of humi- 
lity about once in four or five years. He has 
no pretensions to academical honors, lectures to 
no institution, is no hereditary legislator, no limb 
of representative wisdom: but he has known 
poverty, sickness, and sorrow; he has bent 
over the graves of those he loved, and turned 
again to life to struggle for his own existence, 
and in this rude school he has learned a lesson 
which, perhaps, may be not unuseful to his 
fellow creatures ; he has learned that happiness 
may be attained under circumstances which 
seem to forbid it ; wrongs borne patiently with- 
out losing dignity ; privations endured with a 
gay heart. The philosophy which has done 
this has made its last and best step, — it has be- 
come practical. It is no longer the barren 
speculation of the metaphysician, or the idle 
logic of the schools, but healthy intellectual 
science, grounded on the great facts of human 
nature, and available in all the circumstances of 
our varied existence. 

There was a time too, (how much of late has 
sunk in the troubled ocean of human affairs 
even in the space of one not very long life !) 
there was a time when intellectual science under 
the name of metaphysics, was the mark for 



every witling to try his young jests on, sure of 
a favorable reception from the great body of his 
hearers. It is one of the singular facts of our 
social state, that there are always some few 
things which no one who pretends to enter good 
society ought to know ; and if all these pet 
ignorances had had their tombstones erected, 
and epitaphs duly written by their admirers, 
it would be hard to conceive a more amusing, 
though in truth, melancholy record of human 
folly. In the days of Addison, no well-bred 
lady would venture to know how to spell, in 
later times the prohibition only extended to any 
cultivation of the intellectual powers, which for 
a long time was most religiously attended to 
by all the fair votaries of fashion. In the 
days of Fielding, it would seem that a very 
pretty gentleman indeed might gain a grace by 
misquoting Latin sufficiently to shew that he 
despised the dull routine of school education. 
Later yet a mineralogist or a botanist walked a 
few inches higher, if he would avow himself 
ignorant of metaphysics, and make some clever 
jest on the cobweb speculations of its admirers ; 
and all, learned or ignorant, wise or foolish, still 
unite in thinking it the properest thing in the 
world to be totally ignorant of the properties of 



drugs, or their effect on the human body. True 
it is that a healthy mind in a healthy body is a 
thing worth having, few deny that; and intel- 
lectual and medical science may do somewhat 
towards the preservation of both, this also is 
allowed ; but to attempt to know any thing about 
the matter is really too fatiguing for polished 
people who can afford to pay tutors and physi- 
cians. But the writer is a Pariah, and having 
said thus much, he need hardly assure his 
readers, if any of that so-named " gentle" race 
ever take up these pages, that he never was 
great, or fashionable, or scientific enough, to 
have a pet of this kind : it would have been a 
troublesome, sometimes an expensive, always a 
disagreeable companion, a great hinderance to 
all rational employment, and no help to one 
who not unfrequently has found his wits his 
best heritage. 

If such an one cannot afford to keep a pet 
ignorance, so neither can he afford to carry on 
abstract speculations which lead to no practical 
result : corporeal wants must be attended to ; 
the difficulties of this life must be met and van- 
quished ; and if in the midst of the struggles 
requisite to avoid being trodden under foot in 
the crowd, those great questions (which sooner 



or later occur to every reasonable mind) pre- 
sent themselves, it is not as curious contem- 
plations, matters of philosophical research mere- 
ly, which may occupy a portion of the time 
which is gliding away in the lap of ease and 
luxury, but as problems whose solution involves 
every thing worth caring for in time or in eter- 
nity ; problems whose due solution may gild a 
life which has no other gilding, may set fortune 
at defiance, direct our steps in difficulties, and, 
like oil upon the waves, spread calm where all 
was turmoil and danger before : it is then that 
intellectual science loses its character of barren 
speculation ; every step in advance raises us 
farther above the mists of earth; and the heart 
warms, and the limbs grow strong, at seeing 
the prospect brightening in the distance, under 
the unclouded beams of truth and love. 

It seems, nevertheless, to be necessary that 
science, as well as man, should pass through its . 
different stages of growth; at first, theoretic 
and fanciful, then abstruse, and finally, vigorous >~ 
and practical. Astronomy has so proceeded; 
many a small wit jested at the idle " star- 
gazing" of Flamstead and Halley as satisfac- 
torily as the same genus has scoffed from age 
to age at the " unintelligible" reveries of So- 



crates, or any other seeker of the truth, from 
Pythagoras down to Dugald Stewart and The- 
odore Jouffroy ; but no small wit now tries to 
ground his fame on a successful scoff at " star- 
gazers ;" even Butler's " Elephant in the Moon" 
has followed the fate of the jests of lesser men, 
it is neither quoted, nor perhaps by the gene- 
rality of the world remembered ; and the science 
which guides the mariner over an untracked 
ocean with all the assurance of a mapped coun- 
try, sits enthroned in the affections no less than 
the respect of the present generation. It is 
time that metaphysical, or, as I would rather 
term it, intellectual science,* should take a like 



* u Taken in its largest comprehension, as the know- 
ledge of abstract and separate substances, Aristotle 
raises the philosophy of mind above all other parts of 
learning. He assigns to it the investigation of the prin- 
ciples and causes of things in general, and ranks it not 
only as superior, but also as prior in the order of Nature, 
to the whole of Arts and Sciences. But ' what is first 
to Nature is not first to Man.* Nature begins with 
causes which produce effects. Man begins with effects, 
and by them ascends to causes. Thus all human study 
and investigation proceed of necessity in the reverse of 
the natural order of things; from sensible to intelligible, 
from body, the effect, to mind, which is both the first and 
final cause. Now physic being the name given by the 
Peripatetic to the philosophy of body, from this neces- 
sary course of human studies, some of his interpreters 



place, for it has it in its power to do a greater work 
than this : it can map the gulf between earth 
and heaven, and teach man, amid the conflicting 
opinions of the pilots who undertake to steer 
his bark, to choose and follow the straight 
course which will lead him over that untracked 
ocean in safety. The great men, whose lives 
were spent in the pursuit of abstract truth, have 
left the results of their labours to us, and as 
the fanciful dreams of proportion in numbers, 
pushed at last to the exactness of mathematical 
science, has given us practical astronomy, so it 
is for us now to avail ourselves of the severe 
truth to which they have reduced the more ima- 



called that" of mind, Metaphysic, tiov fitra ra Qvaiica, im- 
plying also by the term, that its subject being more sub- 
lime and difficult than any other, as relating to universals, 
the study of it would come most properly and success- 
fully after that of physics. Taking it, however, in its 
natural order, as furnishing the general principles of all 
other parts of learning which descend from thence to 
the cultivation of particular subjects, Aristotle himself 
called this the First Philosophy; but as its subject is 
universal being, particularly mind, which is the highest 
and most universal, he gave it also the appellation of the 
Universal Science, common to all the rest ; and lastly, 
to finish his encomium of this First and Universal phi- 
losophy, he honoured it with the exclusive name of 
• Wisdom.' "—Tathams Chart and Scale of Truth ,Vol. I. 
p. 17. 



8 

ginative Greek philosophy, and draw from it 
practical metaphysic. 

Had any one else appeared inclined to un- 
dertake the task, the Writer would willingly 
have left it in the hands of the learned and the 
illustrious in science; but no such attempt 
seems likely to be made, and as there are but 
too many of the Pariah race who, like himself, 
may find that something more than the trite in- 
struction of the school-room, or even the pulpit, 
is wanting to brace the mind to resist the rude 
buffets of the world, he at length steps forward, 
not as thinking himself wise, but as feeling 
himself experienced : — 

" Nee nos via fallit euntes : 



Vidimus obscuris primam sub vallibus urbem 
Venatu assiduo, et totum cognovimus amnem." 




INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 

THERE are some few important questions 
which have been constantly agitated from 
the earliest period that we have any record of 
man's history. The answers attempted have 
been various ; but none, as yet, have been so 
generally satisfactory as to prevent them from 
being agitated afresh by every new generation, 
for to every new generation they present them- 
selves with a never-fading interest. 

Man goes forth at his entrance into life, 
confident in powers which, to his youthful fancy, 
seem to know no limit; he feels the happiness 
that his nature is capable of, and that it sighs 
for, and he rushes on to grasp and to enjoy it ; 
but he soon perceives that a power, exterior to 
himself, limits, and often thwarts his endea- 
vours ; he finds himself at the mercy of circum- 
stances which he can rarely guide, or at best 
only in a very slight degree ; and amid the 
anguish of disappointed hope he asks himself, 



10 INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 

" What is this power which I can neither con- 
trol nor escape from ?" 

But he is young; he has probably expected 
to find his happiness in the pleasures of the 
senses ; and a voice within him says that these 
are gross, and unworthy of the god-like nature 
which he is conscious of possessing. He 
launches into the pursuits of the man ; forces 
himself to acquire science and greatness at the 
expense of exertions which exhaust his physical 
strength ; and then, when almost sinking under 
the fatigue of labors which, nevertheless, have 
not given him all that he sought, he asks him- 
self again, " What is this restless power within 
which despises corporeal enjoyment, and tri- 
umphs in compelling the sacrifice of bodily 
comfort for an object which, after all, none at- 
tain?" 

Insurmountable obstacles limit his progress ; 
the perverseness of men thwarts his views for 
their benefit no less than his own ; he looks 
round him in querulous displeasure, and again 
exclaims, " Why is evil in the world?" But 
old age now approaches, " his thoughts" must 
" perish" ere he has accomplished half that he 
has proposed to himself; he must " go hence 
and be no more seen," before he has even at- 



INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 11 

tained the fruit of his labors ; he seems to have 
" walked in a vain shadow, and disquieted him- 
self in vain ;" and then, when all that has filled 
his great aspirations seems shrinking from his 
grasp, when all appears " vanity and vexation 
of spirit," he once more asks in a sort of con- 
centrated despair, " Why man proposes ends to 
himself which he can never compass ? What is 
the good which his nature demands, and how is 
it to be attained? Is it sensual enjoyment? 
No ! such pleasures pall on the senses, and end 
in disgust. Is it intellectual? The limited 
powers of man make the pursuit of science la- 
borious, and death comes ere he has reached 
what he sought. Is it in the innocent enjoy- 
ments of social life ? These are soon buried in 
the graves of those he loves. 

These are the questions which every man 
not wholly brutalized must sooner or later ask 
himself. These are the questions, in fact, which 
have agitated mankind in all ages, and whose 
solution forms the basis of all systems of reli- 
gion and philosophy. They all may be resolved 
into three ; namely, 

1. What is the nature of the power exterior 
to ourselves ? 

2. What is the nature of the power within 
ourselves ? 



12 INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 

3. What, with reference to these two, is the 
nature of the good which man ought to propose 
to himself as his aim and object ? 

The solution of the first two questions forms 
the subject of all metaphysical, or in other 
words, intellectual science. That of the third 
gives the practical result. Systems of religion 
decide these questions authoritatively, systems 
of philosophy solve them by rational argument, 
and as, however numerous these systems may 
be, there can be but one Truth, so we are 
justified in assuming that the religious and the 
philosophical system must tally, or that one or 
the other is in error. There is, however, this 
difference between the two, viz. that the autho- 
ritative system is necessarily delivered in the 
form of dogmata to be received, not of argu- 
ments to be tried and weighed ; and these dog- 
mata are couched in words which, as no pre- 
vious course of reasoning is recorded, are liable 
to be misinterpreted by the prejudices of man- 
kind. The philosophical system, on the con-, 
trary, is obliged to prove its assertions step by 
step ; and if an undue leaning to any precon- 
ceived notion should lead to the adoption of a 
weak argument, the first dispassionate man who 
goes over the same ground will perceive and 



INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 13 

overthrow it : thus, though in the case of suffi- 
ciency of external evidence to prove the preten- 
sions of the first to be well grounded, it is the 
shorter process, and therefore most acceptable 
to manV indolence ; yet the second is the more 
certain one. To be completely satisfactory, the 
two should be joined together ; but though oc- 
casionally a voice has been raised to call for 
this auspicious union, unfortunately for the 
world, the guardians of the former have gene" 
rally held her to be too rich a bride to be be- 
stowed on a mate who had no better inheritance 
than Socrates' old cloak and worn sandals, and 
have " forbidden the banns." The conse- 
quences have been disastrous : philosophy, like 
a wild youth, has run through a course of licen- 
tiousness ; and religion, like a wealthy heiress, 
has become the prey of designing men. It is, 
perhaps, not too late to rescue both. Let us 
then begin with philosophy, whose morals 
(whatever they might have been while he was 
Socrates' pupil) have in later times been 
thought by no means faultless. 

It would be a long and (to a reader) a weari- 
some task to go over all the disputes which 
have agitated the learned through so many 
centuries, as to moral perceptions, innate ideas, 



14 INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 

&c. He who would map a country must ex- 
plore the by-roads ; but he who uses the map, 
if he finds the road laid down lead to the place 
he wishes to arrive at, will not think it needful 
to traverse every lane on his way. It will 
suffice, therefore, to assume as an axiom, (what 
nobody probably will deny,) that truth is real- 
ity, namely, what really is ; error, an unfounded 
persuasion of something that is not. Now what 
is, must be either within or exterior to our- 
selves; and to know what is exterior to our- 
selves truly, that is, in its reality, we must ex- 
amine it by the evidence of our senses, or by 
that of our reasoning faculties, or by both con- 
jointly. There is no other process by which 
we can arrive at a certainty of knowledge. 
Thus then, as an innate idea is one which must 
be received in the mind as truth without pre- 
vious evidence, an innate idea of what is exte- 
rior to ourselves is a contradiction, and the 
common voice of mankind has decided on the 
point, by characterizing those who receive the 
persuasions of the imagination in the room of 
evidence as insane. Nor is the impressing 
itself on the mind without previous evidence the 
only necessary character of an innate idea ; it 
must also be found in the minds of all mankind 



INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 15 

as a constituent part of their nature, otherwise 
it cannot be innate. It will soon be seen that 
there is only one idea which can answer to this 
description, namely, that of individuality, whose 
demonstration rests on that very individual con- 
sciousness, an evidence so unhesitatingly al- 
lowed by all mankind, that were any one to 
attempt to overthrow it by arguing that asser- 
tion is no proof, he might make good his posi- 
tion, and yet convince no one : for all feel that 
in order to assert individual existence it is re- 
quisite that a man should exist. But all im- 
pressions received by this individual conscious- 
ness are exterior to it, and consequently require 
to be examined ; and thus intellectual science, 
like all others, becomes the subject of experi- 
ment and inquiry, and can only make progress 
by being classified and arranged so as to enable 
different individuals and succeeding generations 
to pursue and record their observations upon 
different portions of it. Even that part which 
Bacon himself hesitated to subject to the rules of 
his experimental philosophy, namely, religious 
knowledge, must submit to the same sort of 
examination : for from whatever quarter the au- 
thoritative dogma comes, it is presented to the 
senses from without, and cannot be received as 



16 INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 

authority, without sufficient evidence, both ex- 
ternal and internal, to satisfy the mind of its 
truth ; and as in classifying, the most natural 
arrangement is always the most intelligible, so 
the great questions which man's experience in 
life never fails to suggest to him, afford at once 
the simplest and the best division of the subject. 

I. What is the nature of the power exterior 
to ourselves ? 

Man's first step, when this enquiry has sug- 
gested itself to his mind, is to look round on the 
objects amid which he moves, and which often 
appear to be the active agents in causing him 
either enjoyment or suffering. Does the power 
which controls him exist there ? The untaught 
savage perhaps answers yes, and selects his 
fetiche from the first thing that strikes his fancy. 
A little more cultivation sends him from the 
fetiche to something less tangible, and of greater 
apparent energy, and the heavenly bodies are 
adored: but when the question occurs in an 
age of more advancement, a very different pro- 
cess must be resorted to, in order to satisfy a 
mind accustomed to the severity of demonstra- 
tion required by real science. We perceive an 
universe whose slightest movement we are un- 
able to regulate ; after ages of thought and ob- 



INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 17 

servation, we think it our glory that we have 
arrived at the discovery of the laws by which it 
coheres ; but they are so totally beyond our 
power to alter, that we can only hope to effect 
our purpose by shaping it in conformity to 
them. We have subjected these laws to the 
strictest examination ; we cannot doubt that we 
have arrived at the truth, but these immutable 
laws provide only for the regular movement of 
inert matter. We look round again ; we are 
surrounded by organized bodies, and we have 
not yet discovered the law by which they exist. 
We converse with our fellows, and find some- 
thing beyond organized life merely; we find 
intellect, that subtle agent by which our en- 
quiries are carried on, itself offering a problem 
of no small difficulty. The conclusion from all 
this, ascending by a legitimate process of in- 
duction, from what we see and hear to what we 
cannot discern by any of our external senses, 
and can only apprehend by means of our rea- 
soning faculties is, that some power must exist 
capable of giving birth to all this ; and as " ex 
nihilo nihil fit," had there ever been a time 
when there was nothing, there never could have 
been a beginning of existence, therefore that 
power must be eternal ; and as there is nothing 
c 



l x 8 INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 

but inorganized matter that bears a character of 
permanency, and the notion of an eternal series 
is an absurdity ; so to produce organized and 
intelligent beings, that eternal power must be 
intelligent. How much superior the creating 
intelligence must be to that created, the man 
who has constructed a steam-engine may guess ; 
for he knows at what an inconceivable distance 
in the scale of being he stands from the ma- 
chine he has put together. 

The power exterior to ourselves, then, is 
eternal and intelligent, and what is eternal, is 
of necessity self-existent. Now it is a necessary 
consequence of self-existence that such a being 
must be unlimited both in power and know- 
ledge ; for as he himself exists by his own will, 
therefore his own nature, no less than all other 
natures existing by his will, must be perfectly 
known to him, and entirely under his control, 
and what is unlimited must be One; for to 
suppose a second eternal principle would be to 
suppose a second individual will and purpose, 
which must produce a constant warfare, and 
would derange all the operations of nature, 
whose laws, on the contrary, we find to be im- 
mutable. For an incorporeal being can have 
no individuality but in will and purpose, and if 



INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 19 

the will be one, then there is an amalgamation 
of nature. Thus by a legitimate course of rea- 
soning, we arrive at the certainty of one eter- 
nal, self-existent, all-wise, and all-powerful Be- 
ing, whom our simple ancestors, with a degree 
of philosophical accuracy which no other nation 
seems to have reached, named 30^, i. e. good, 
for to such a being alone could the perfection 
belong which justly deserves that appellation. 

But we have not even yet exhausted the con- 
• sequences of this chain of reasoning : for the 
all-wise and all-powerful Being must be able to 
effect his will, whatever it may be. We may 
again look round us, and judge from what we 
see, what that will is. We see a profusion of 
means to convey pleasure ; a profusion of crea- 
tures seemingly made to enjoy it, especially 
among the lower grades of organized beings. 
We have already proved that the eternal Intel- 
ligence can effect his will, whatever it be ; then 
if that will were malevolent, we should see and 
feel nothing but destruction and misery ; but we 
do not see it ; then that will is not malevolent. 

But the sad questioner who began the en- 
quiry as to the nature of this eternal power, 
may perhaps again enquire, " If the will of the 
Creator be benevolent, why am I controlled in 



20 INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 

my wishes, limited to a life which is too short 
for my projects, and often made miserable 
during that short life by sickness or by the loss 
of what I had centred my whole joy in?" But 
who has assured you that these few years 
elapsing" between the cradle and the tomb are 
all ? The will of the eternal Being is not male- 
volent, beings of a far lower grade fulfil the 
end of their being and are happy ; you aspire to 
something which the short span of life never 
gives. Is it not a proof that your nature is not 
bounded by that span ? Turn then to the next 
question, for it is now time to do so. 

II. What is the nature of the power within 
ourselves ? 

Our only way of investigating an intangible 
and invisible power is by its effects ; we can, 
therefore, only judge of what the power within 
ourselves is, by noting the phenomena of human 
nature ; these, on a little consideration, will be 
found to resolve themselves into three classes. 

1. The instinctive emotions and appetites, all 
arising involuntarily, attended with a sensible 
bodily effect, and causing. derangement of bodily 
health when in excess ; anger, fear, &c. all take 
their place among these. 



INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 21 

2. The faculties; which are exercised by 
choice, but suffer fatigue in the exercise, require 
rest, and exhibit other symptoms of their animal 
origin, but nevertheless slumber, if not called 
into activity by a voluntary act. 

3. The acts of a restless undivided will, 
which requires no repose, suffers no fatigue ; is 
as strong in the child or the dotard, as in the 
mature man ; which claims for itself the whole 
individuality of existence, and speaks of my 
body, my faculties, but never seems to have the 
most distant conception that this body or these 
faculties are identical with itself. 

It is quite clear that neither of the two first 
classes of phenomena can be referred to that 
power within whose nature we are seeking to 
ascertain, for this often curbs and contradicts 
the instinctive emotions, and impels the faculties 
to continued exertion, when weariness, and pain 
even, shew how much they need repose. Ani- 
mal nature does not seek to destroy itself know- 
ingly, but man knows that his life is the forfeit 
of a particular course of action, and yet he 
pursues it: then the impelling power is of a 
different nature from the powers which it impels. 
It is this impelling individual will then, or " per- 



22 



INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 



sonal power/' (as it has been aptly termed by a 
philosopher* whose works deserve to be more 
known than they are) that must form the sub- 
ject of our enquiry ; for on its real nature de- 
pends the answer to the last question, as to 
what the good is which man has to seek, and 
what are the means to obtain that good. 

The first indication of this power is seen in 
the infant angry at its own helplessness, and 
evincing its discontent by passionate struggles 
and cries. The individual will has come into a 
scene which it does not understand, has organs 
which are insufficient for its desires, and in 
mere wayward spite, beats the nurse for not 
comprehending what is the matter. Watch the 
growing child ; questions, curious observations, 
obstinate persistence in its own views shew a 
power which is rather seeking information for 
its own guidance, than by any means partaking 
in the immaturity of the childish bodily form. 
Stronger beings have a will also, which they 
enforce by the infliction of punishment; the 
child resists till pain teaches him to choose the 
lesser evil, and the point is yielded just when 



* Theodore Jouffroy. " Melanges Philosophiques — 
Des facultes de Tame humaine." 



INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 23 

pain or privation has reached the point of being 
more irksome than the concession demanded ;* 
this concession very generally being not the 
sacrifice of any instinctive desire, but some en- 
deavour at independence in a thing which is itself 



* It may be objected by some, that the higher ani- 
mals exhibit some traces of this independent will ', but 
before this objection be allowed weight, it ought to be 
considered that there is an animal will, the result of 
mere organization; the impulse of sensation mechani- 
cally propagated through the nerves and brain, until the 
nerves of voluntary motion in their turn receive and pro- 
pagate the excitement to the muscles ; which is, in fact, 
the whole mystery of instinct. It will be difficult to 
shew that in animals any thing more than this instinctive, 
will is ever discovered, but even supposing there were, 
let the argument have its weight : it might go to prove, 
perhaps, that the occasional sufferings of the animal 
creation are parts of a system not yet fully developed; 
but it alters not the case as regards man, for we cannot 
argue from unknown premises ; and before we can draw 
any deduction from animal nature to apply to our own, 
we must know much more about it than we do. The 
pride of man has disclaimed the fellowship of the animal 
creation, but we should be puzzled to find any sufficient 
proof one way or the other ; let us then be contented 
to leave this matter where we found it, and argue only 
from what we know, satisfied that man will suffer no de_ 
terioration, even if 

" in that distant sky 
His faithful dog should bear him company." 



24 INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 

of little consequence. The child arrives at ma- 
turity, and a fresh struggle for freedom com- 
mences. Life is thrown away as mere dust, to 
cast off slavery or preserve free institutions, for 
man has discovered practically that his nature 
only arrives at its highest point in a state of 
rational independence. Old age and sickness 
supervene ; does this restless power, then, yield 
to circumstances ? No. Impatience at the failure 
of the organs which have been wont to do its 
bidding, is the usual concomitant of these, and 
if we do not find impatience, it is only because 
it is curbed by the knowledge which the impe- 
rious spirit has at last gained, that this worn 
and enfeebled body is not its home, and that 
brighter days are approaching. When Maske- 
lyne, amid the wreck caused by old age and 
palsy, blessed the child that sought him with 
affection, and could only utter " great man 
once," was the personal power less strong? 
Those few words shewed what he would again 
have done, had he but had the organs requisite 
for the work. In sleep even this voluntary 
power slumbers not; it resigns the reins, in- 
deed, for a time, on the repeated petition of 
eyes, limbs, and brain, all declaring that they 
can do no more ; but it remains on the watch to 



INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 25 

use whip and spur again the moment it finds its 
servants capable of action. If any one doubt 
this, let him only strongly resolve at going to 
sleep to wake at a particular hour or a particular 
sound, and without any other known cause than 
the will, behold the man wakes, though, in any 
other case, he would have slept to a much later 
hour, or continued asleep through much louder 
sounds. This is a thing of too common occur- 
rence to require particular instances to be given. 
Finally in death itself, the last symptom of life 
that we see is usually an ineffectual eifort to 
do or say something which the dying person 
evidently thinks of importance, disappointment 
at being unable to do it is visible, and the man 
dies. 

We have traced the body from helplessness 
to death ; it varies in its powers : first some 
instincts prevail, then others ; then the faculties 
are developed, and then they fail. We can easily 
conceive that this waxing and waning power 
may return to its elements and be reeompounded 
in a fresh form ; but the unchanged individuality, 
which neither grows nor decays, how is this to 
perish ? What seeds of mortality can we find 
in that ? The anatomist traces nerves of sen- 
sation, influencing in their turn the nerves of 



26 INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 

voluntary action, and shows a beautiful arrange- 
ment thus made for the preservation of the 
animal, but the individual power steps in, says 
to sensation, " You may stimulate the nerves of 
voluntary action, but I forbid it ;" and to the 
nerves of voluntary action, " You shall not wait 
for the stimulus of sensation ; I command, and 
you shall do my bidding." In what part of bo- 
dily organization then is this power seated ? The 
philosophical seeker of the truth must answer, 
It is not a part of bodily organization ; it shares 
not in the growth or decay of the body th^Ln by 
analogy, neither does it share in its death; it 
sighs for other joys, despises what the body 
offers, spurns at the limited span of life. What 
is this but an indication of its destiny ? Hap- 
piness consists in the full developement of all 
the powers of Nature : no animal seeks that 
which it is unable to enjoy — the fish remains 
quiet in the water without seeking to quit it to 
share the pleasures of the quadruped or the fowl. 
Man sighs for the felicity of the Deity : then 
man is of a kindred nature. We proceed there- 
fore to the final question. 

III. What, with reference to the two powers 
already treated of, is the nature of the good 



INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 27 

which man ought to propose to himself as his 
aim and object ? 

Our enquiry here will not be long. What- 
ever other orders of intelligent beings there 
may be, there are only two that we can form 
any judgment of: — The one, the subject of our 
first, the other that of our second question. 
We assume it as an axiom in philosophy, that 
the felicity of the being must consist in the 
full developement of its natural powers, and we 
see this to be the case with all the inferior 
grades of animals : we turn to man, and we see 
that the developement of his animal powers 
does not satisfy him, he asks for more, he asks 
for knowledge, greatness, immortality, and these 
are the felicities of the Deity ; then, the good 
which he has to seek can be none other than 
the developement of an intelligent, and not an 
animal nature. We have already seen that 
the individuality is concentred in that interior 
power whose nature we have been examining; 
that interior power is akin to the Deity : then, 
the felicity of the Deity in kind, though not in 
degree, may be his, and no rational man will 
propose to himself any other. 

Such are the conclusions of philosophy, such 



28 INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 

were its conclusions from the time when these 
questions were first agitated, and wise and good 
men long before our sera had suffered exile, 
imprisonment, and death, rather than abstain 
from promulgating these great truths. Who 
now will dare to stand forward and say that 
there is " any just cause or impediment" why 
philosophy and Christianity should not plight 
their troth to each other, and bless the world 
henceforward by their holy union ? Once more, 
" I publish the banns," and defy man to put 
asunder those whom God has willed should be 
joined together. " Fecisti nos tibi et manet 
cor irrequietum donee restat in te," was the sen- 
timent of Augustine, " Ex vita ita discedo 
tanquam ex hospitio non tanquam ex domo," 
says Cicero in the character of Cato, " O prae- 
clarum diem cum ad ilium divinum animorum 
n concilium^aetumque proficiscar ; cumque ex hac 

turba et colluvione discedam !" Where is the 
difference between the philosopher and the 
Christian ? 

I have now gone over the general outline of 
the classification which I propose to make of 
intellectual science. I have, I think, proved in 
answer to the first question that there exists an 



INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 29 

eternal, self-existent, creating Intelligence ; all- 
wise, all-powerful, and benevolent ; and the 
portion of intellectual science which treats of 
this Being I propose to call Theology. 

I have, I think, proved in answer to the 
second question, that the individuality of man 
consists in a restless, undying intelligence, akin 
in its nature to that of the Deity ; and I propose 
to call the portion of intellectual science which 
relates to the functions of this intelligent, in- 
dividual power, Psychology. 

I have drawn as a conclusion in answer to 
the third question, That such being the nature 
of that individual power, the good it has to seek 
is, assimilation to the Deity in will and kind of 
felicity. The titles given to this part of the 
science have been various. Some have called it 
Morality, some Religion ; but as unfortunately 
these two terms have been set up as rivals to 
each other, neither conveys the exact meaning 
to men's minds which I would wish. It would 
be easy to coin another Greek compound, and 
Agathology would not ill-express that part of 
the science which relates to the nature of this 
6 summum bonum' and the means of attaining 



30 INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 

it ; but for a plain man a plain word is better, 
and I would rather head the last division as the 
practical result of the two former. In what I 
have to say further, I shall consider these 
divisions as applicable no less to the authorita- 
tive, than the philosophic system. The external 
evidence of the former I take for granted ; 
Christianity must have had an origin, and it is 
far less outrage to common sense to suppose its 
outset was such as its first promulgators assert, 
than to allegorize Christ and his apostles into 
the sun and the signs of the zodiac, or any 
thing else as strange and as improbable. The 
existence of Christianity is too notorious to be 
denied; and if, as a system, it offers all that 
man's best reason has been able to discover, 
if it offer as a perfect whole, comprehensible to 
the meanest capacity, what no single man, how- 
ever great, quite accomplished, then it is no 
imposture, it is the Truth; that truth which 
Socrates died for, and which armed Cicero's 
timid nature to meet his assassins with the 
courage of a hero. It is in vain that we attempt 
to reject it; the man who professes to cast aside 
Revelation altogether, still if he be not a vicious 
man, lives as a Christian, has a Christian 



INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 31 

benevolence ; a Christian's hopes ; it is in his 
nature, his instincts oblige him to love his 
fellows ; his faculties compel him to acknow- 
ledge a First Cause, his dearest wish is immor- 
tality: Christianity comes but to second the 
dictates of his better self, and to give a sanction 
to his hopes ; but with this advantage, that he 
whose mind has not been enough cultivated to. 
reason out a foundation for these hopes, or to 
argue man's duties from his nature, finds plain 
precepts for his guidance which embody all and 
somewhat more than philosophy could have 
taught him ; if this system be not divine, at 
any rate had the Deity given a revelation to 
man, he could have given no other. 

It will be my endeavour now to show how 
the one truth which forms the centre of both 
the authoritative and philosophical systems will 
be reflected back from each in turn, so as to 
throw light upon the other ; and if, in so doing, 
I may set at rest some few of the angry feelings 
which are too apt to prevail on subjects where 
they are the most misplaced, if but one heart 
should learn to feel with me that where all are 
eagerly looking for the truth, that circumstance 
ought to make us rather friends than enemies, 



32 INTRODUCTORY ENQUIRIES. 

and that the path we take matters far less than 
the place we are going to ; — I shall have at 
least one cheering thought to go with me to my 
grave, brightening my path as all else grows 
darker. 



4 



THEOLOGY. 

ONE of the most fruitful sources of angry 
discussions on this subject on the one 
hand, and idle scoffs on the other, has been the 
disposition so prevalent among men, to a species 
of Anthropomorphism in their notions of the 
Deity ; for though all will not go the length of 
the Egyptian monks who nearly murdered their 
bishop for endeavouring to persuade them that 
God had not actual hands and feet (as they 
alleged they found written in the Scripture), 
yet many would go nearly that length with him 
who should dare to assert that God has no more 
of the vindictive passions than of the bodily 
form of a man. Yet we must see clearly that 
one is nearly as absurd a fancy as the other, 
if we consider that a pure spiritual existence 
has no individuality but in will, and purpose, 
and feeling; and that therefore any of those 
changes in mood which are in truth a part of 
the animal nature of man, would be equivalent 

D 



34 THEOLOGY. 

to a change of individuality in the Deity ; for a 
change of purpose is a change of person where 
there is no animal nature to create or suffer 
that change. Philosophy asserts this, so does 
Christianity ; in God " is no variableness, 
neither shadow of turning," yet men in all ages 
have misapprehended a few eastern hyperboles 
in the language of the Scripture, till they have 
made a Deity for themselves such as we should 
/^^.^ not select even for a human fiend. " I defy you 
to say so hard a thing of the devil," said John 
Wesley when speaking of Whitfield's doctrine 
of Reprobation ; yet Wesley was not free from 
the prevailing anthropomorphism himself. 

The very first step then, if we would wish 
either to understand what is predicated of the 
Deity in our Scriptures, or know how we our- 
selves stand with regard to this exterior power 
whose will evidently must control us something 
in the same way that the parent controls the 
child, is, to ascertain what are the necessary 
conditions of eternity and self-existence, for it 
is in vain to say that the Deity is utterly beyond 
the reach of our reasoning faculties. We can 
conceive eternity, we can conceive self-existence ; 
every strong and cultivated mind that has turned 
its attention to these subjects knows this ; 



THEOLOGY. 35 

though it is one of those parts of individual 
consciousness which admits no other proof than 
the feeling that we can. We can conceive, that 
is, though unable to comprehend, (using the 
word in its sense of the entire grasping of a 
subject,) we can apprehend or reach to and lay- 
hold on the great features of the case : we can 
arrive in thought at an approximation to the 
nature of an immaterial existence, though we 
cannot fathom all its depths ; and that we can 
do so is perhaps one of the strongest though 
least conspicuous proofs, that we have a sort of 
imperfect specimen within us of what immaterial 
existence is ; for experience shews that man is 
unable to conceive what he has no exemplar of. 
The wildest imagination, while endeavouring to 
form a monster, has never done more than take 
disjointed parts of known things and put them 
together. The essence of eternity and of self- 
existence is, that it is boundless, for (as I have 
already observed) if we supposed any other like 
power, we must either suppose a difference, or 
an agreement of individual will and purpose ; if 
a difference, then there must be discord and 
destruction : if agreement, then, as there are no 
bodily parts to prevent entire union, there is an 
amalgamation and the power is one, one, in its 



36 THEOLOGY. 

individuality that is, — but, (as some antient 
Christian philosophers have well observed), not 
necessarily one in its parts or functions, since 
the individuality, the wisdom,* and the actively 
exerted will, are distinct principles appertaining 
to the same essence ; for it is clear that the 
individuality might exist for ever without any 
active exertion, yet the power of exertion is in it, 
and capable of being manifested at any time, and 
though the individuality, the wisdom, and the 
exerted will are distinct parts or functions of the 
one self-existent Being, they are necessary con- 
sequences of each other, and being each perfect, 
can be susceptible of no change : for the know- 
ledge which directs the will being entire, the 
choice consequent upon it must be always the 
same ; nor can there be any other essential part 
or function affirmed of the eternal self-existent 
Being than these three : all the rest must be 
mere negatives consequent on them. Thus God 
cannot be mistaken in the means to an end, or 
find his purpose changed by unexpected cir- 

* The mere English reader is not aware, and even 
some scholars scarcely consider that the term Xoyog, 
which in the Gospel of St. John is translated " Word," 
has the meaning in the Greek of the " Reasoning Power," 
or " Wisdom in active operation." 



THEOLOGY. 37 

cumstances ; because perfect knowledge forbids 
both. Nor can God suffer pain or grief, because 
either the one or the other results from the 
action of some force, exterior and superior to 
the being so suffering: a thing which perfect 
power equally forbids. 

Again, there can be no distinction of past 
or future with the Deity* Man measures 
time by the revolutions of the earth, and by his 
own waxing and waning powers. Give him an 
eternal day and an unaltered body, what then 
will be his past and future ? The past is what 
he has done and knows, the future what he has 
not yet done, and therefore does not know : but 
the Deity knows all, where then is his dis- 
tinction of time ? To Him it is one unbounded 
present, and all the events of the world no less 
than its component parts lie spread before him 
as in a map, save that our map only represents 
material objects, whereas it is the mind of man 
which the Deity looks through, sees the motives 
which operate there, and bends the events of 
nature so far to control the actions resulting 
from them, as to make even evil intentions 
conducive to some good end. It is an earthly 
and a human notion which figures to itself the 
Deity arranging the affairs of the world by 



88 THEOLOGY. 

patching here and mending there, as if any 
event could take the Creator by surprise : and 
here arises the question which has been repeated 
through all ages, " Why then is there evil ? 
Why is there suffering in the world ? " for if 
an all-powerful Deity sees and permits, it is 
equivalent to the causing it. Even in human 
law, the man who stands by and sees a murder 
committed without endeavouring to prevent it 
is held a party to the crime. 

The answer to this is to be found in the 
nature of the beings in question. There is one 
thing which even to the Deity is impossible. 
The self-existent cannot make another self- 
existent, and what is not self-existent is bounded ; 
for there is an antecedent and a greater power : 
and what is bounded is imperfect ; for there is 
something which it does not know, and there- 
fore it can commit errors. Now experience 
shews us that there is no happiness but in 
voluntary action ; minerals have chemical affi- 
nities and combine necessarily, but there is no 
sensation of pleasure. The heart performs its 
functions involuntarily, and there is no sen- 
sation of pleasure in their performance. The 
goods of life as they are called, such as health, 
riches, &c, when in quiet possession give no 

I 



THEOLOGY. 39 

pleasure further than they afford the means of 
seeking it, which is voluntary action. To make 
a being capable of a high degree of happiness 
then, he must have a free and intelligent will ; 
and thus he is akin to the Deity, and capable 
of tasting the same felicity. This necessarily 
imperfect being therefore has a complete free- 
dom of choice, consequently the power of erring 
is his choice ; what then would be the course 
pursued by unbounded benevolence to preserve 
him from error? Would it not hedge him 
round with difficulties at every step towards 
that wrong path ; with inward discomfort, pain, 
and a long train of evil consequences to prevent 
him from pursuing it ? Would it not school 
him as a parent does his child by allowing him 
to suffer from his thoughtlessness to make 
him wiser in future? An imperfect being 
might not know how to prize or to enjoy the 
Divine felicity, till taught its worth by having 
tried in other directions and found himself 
wrong. Is there then actual evil in the world 
if we except that of the perverse will of man ? 
I think a short consideration will shew that 
there is not. I think that there is no man who 
has attained middle age, who will not acknow- 
ledge that in the irremediable events of his life 



40 THEOLOGY. 

there has always been either a grief avoided or a 
good to be gained, if he chose to lay hold on it. 
A friend, the beloved above all others, dies, — 
perhaps it is long before we can see cause to 
thank heaven that he is safe from the evil which 
he would otherwise have had to endure from 
evil men. His death has changed all our views 
and aims ; do we not find that in this change of 
views and aims we have gained more than an 
equivalent for what we have after all lost but 
for a time ? We have gained probably a farther 
power of doing good, have formed fresh con- 
nexions over whom we may exercise a beneficial 
influence, are becoming more capable of intel- 
lectual happiness ourselves, and of leading 
others to enjoy it; more assimilated to God, 
and more fitted for a joyful reunion with those 
whom He has taken to Himself. If our con- 
clusion as to the real nature of man be just 
(and I know not how we are to avoid acknow- 
ledging it to be so), then what passes in the 
short span of bodily existence is but one part of 
a great whole ; and in passing through that 
state which is the school of our intellectual 
nature, enjoying pleasure while pursuing the 
right course, and suffering pain when following 
the wrong one, we are only undergoing a 



THEOLOGY. 41 

necessary preparation for a higher degree of 
happiness ; after which, having gained the 
experience necessary to enable us to choose 
aright, we may find in the bosom of the Divinity 
and in the society of others perfected like our- 
selves, the entire felicity which we have sighed 
for. 

Thus far philosophy speaks. Christianity 
goes further, though in the same tone. Chris- 
tianity says, " Man's path, even though thus 
fenced, may be mistaken," and it proceeds to 
offer a set of precepts which make that path still 
plainer ; it offers more yet, it sets before him an 
exemplar of human virtue, made perfect by the 
indwelling of the Deity, and by shewing how 
lovely such a life might be, even with no 
circumstance of worldly grandeur or pleasure to 
recommend it, has brought every feeling of 
man's heart into accordance with his true 
interests. " Never man spake like this man," 
" All were astonished at the gracious words 
which proceeded out of his mouth," &c. &c. 
sufficiently shews how that bright pattern of 
excellence laid hold on the minds of the most 
indifferent. 

Nor is this all : we have already seen that the 
qualities of the Divine nature may be argued 



42 



THEOLOGY. 



out by a sound philosophy, Man finds himself 
in a certain degree a partaker of that nature, 
therefore, by the necessary law of all existence, 
his happiness must be of the same kind ; and to 
seek any other would be but the insanity of a 
man who should plunge into the arctic seas to 
follow the whale. If then convinced of this 
truth he school his mind to wish what the 
Deity wills ; to seek, in short, the same felicity, 
he will no longer have to complain of his finite 
nature ; for Infinite Power is already accom- 
plishing his wish, almost before he has known 
how to shape it. He has no dread that the 
attainment of his object will be defeated ; for he 
knows that if the scheme he has devised prove 
vain, it is only because it was not in reality 
calculated to promote the end he had in view, 
and his inmost heart thus becomes a spring of 
never-failing content and satisfaction, a well of 
living water, freshening and beautifying all 
around as well as all within. 

None who have not tried are aware of the 
large influence which a soul thus constituted 
has even upon the bodily health, though phy- 
sicians have not unfrequently observed that a 
quiet and happy mind is the best medicine in 
illness. Sickness is one of those evils which 



THEOLOGY. 43 

are thought the immediate infliction of the 
Deity, though were the matter better considered, 
it would appear that it is most generally of 
man's making; but even when thus produced 
it may become a blessing instead of a misfortune 
by steadily pursuing the same course. If in 
health, we can imitate the perfections and seek 
the felicity of the Deity, by diffusing happiness 
around us and enjoying the contemplation of it ; 
in sickness we may seek the knowledge which 
forms another part of His attributes. It is a 
false notion that application of the mind to 
science is impossible or hurtful in such a state, 
on the contrary it takes off the tedium of con- 
finement, withdraws the attention from pain, 
and makes what would otherwise be wearisome 
a source of enjoyment ; for those who have 
active duties to fulfil, often have scanty leisure 
for acquiring what nevertheless they sigh for. 
In the quiet of a sick chamber knowledge may 
be sought and yet no duty neglected ; and with 
convalescence comes the additional pleasure of 
feeling that we go forth to our duties with a 
mind strengthened by its high contemplations, 
and with increased powers of usefulness from 
the acquisition of knowledge. This is no 
imaginary picture ; if the philosophy (which the 



44 THEOLOGY. 

writer now presents to those who, like him, 
need it for practical use) be worth any thing, 
let him who profits by it remember that it was 
so acquired. It was during months of illness 
that he stole time to hold intercourse with the 
master-minds of antiquity; and often has he 
hailed, almost with delight, the respite thus 
afforded him from worldly toil. If then, to an 
individual deeply involved in all the perplexities 
caused by man's perverse will, the mere 
schooling his wishes to the Divine similitude 
be productive of so much peace and happiness, 
what would be the consequence if a whole com- 
munity were under the same influence ? The 
question of " why evil is in the world ? " would 
not then be asked; for there would be none. 
Health would not be worn out by extreme 
labour ; for who that loved his neighbour would 
require or allow it? Hearts would not be 
broken by unkindness ; for the follower of such 
a system " loves his brother." Disease would 
not be brought on by excess or transmitted in 
the blood to an unfortunate progeny ; for men 
would no longer debase themselves by sensuality. 
Science would meet and control the dangers 
arising from natural causes ; and death itself 
would be but a pleasant journey to a happier land, 



THEOLOGY. 45 

where friends and kindred were awaiting us. 
Again I repeat that the mass of suffering which 
man sternly mounts upon to arraign the Deity 
is heaped up by himself only, and might be 
swept away again by the same hands that placed 
it there. Three generations of a wise and 
virtuous race would nearly efface the mischiefs 
of all the ages of sin and sorrow which had 
preceded them. There is nothing in all this, 
probably, that has not been said before, and 
perhaps better said ; but unfortunately, the 
necessity of using words as the medium of thought 
frequently leads us to forget that they are only 
the medium and not the idea themselves. 
Thus we find it daily repeated, that God is 
eternal, self-existent, almighty ; and when these 
words are uttered it is thought sufficient. 
Among those who utter them, who is there 
who has accurately weighed the necessary con- 
ditions of such an existence ? The most con- 
tradictory propositions are brought forward and 
insisted on, and none perceive the contradiction 
unless the very word should bear it upon its 
face. Thus, he who should assert that God is 
wise and ignorant, powerful and weak, at the 
same time, might be doubted ; but he who 
asserts such changes of purpose in the Deity as 



46 THEOLOGY. 

we find resulting from the want of power or of 
knowledge in man, gains credit, because it is 
not perceived that omnipotence and omniscience 
leave no room for any such change, and that 
eternity and self-existence entirely forbid the 
possibility of it: this is but one of the many 
propositions of this kind which daily pass current 
in the w T orld. If, therefore, an accurate notion 
of the nature of the ruling power on whom we 
depend be requisite to the understanding our 
position, and regulating our actions, it is of no 
small importance to awaken men's minds to the 
logical consequences of their admitted creed. 
Indeed, were this course generally followed, 
there would be an end of the dissensions which 
now disgrace the Christian world ; for a really 
false opinion would soon manifest itself to the 
mind of the enquirer by the absurdity of its 
consequences, and all other differences (which 
arise merely from taking words for ideas and 
then imagining that our neighbour means dif- 
ferently, because he uses a different word), 
would merge in the one truth which all love, 
and either seek, or think they have attained. I 
believe that if each of the words which have 
in turn been made the ' Shibboleth' of a party 
had been subjected to such a process, we might 



THEOLOGY. 47 

now be living in peace, " one fold, under one 
shepherd." Sure I am, that as the Truth 
can be but one, there must be a fault in the 
course pursued, or those who have honestly 
sought it could not have remained, as (alas ! 
for Christian charity,) many wise and otherwise 
good men have remained, in bitter opposition to 
each other. 

" The man is other and better than his belief," 
says Coleridge ; so great a thinker ought to have 
gone further, and told us why it is so ; for the 
maxim is a true one. Is it not that the con- 
viction of the heart, from which his actions flow, 
finds imperfect expression in words,, and that 
even those words fail to convey to others the 
meaning he has intended to give them? His 
words are attacked, and he defends them as the 
visible signs of what he thinks and feels; but 
are they so ? Let any man try to express his 
own interior conviction in accurate terms, and 
see how many deep feelings of unseen realities, 
how many humble prostrations of human weak- 
ness before Divine perfection, are unsusceptible 
of any expression at all ; and when he begins 
to attempt a definition, how his very soul groans 
over the un suited tools he has to use ; and when 
he has felt all this, let him, if he can, condemn 



48 THEOLOGY. 

his neighbour s creed, when he sees his neigh- 
bours' life, and reads in that what he must 
V, have intended to express. 

We have now seen what are the necessary 
conditions of self-existence. Will either Unita- 
rians or Trinitarians dissent from this ? Atha- 
nasius the most decided of Trinitarians expressed 
himself in nearly the same terms that I have 
used. Priestly could hardly have wished for 
any other definition. "Why then have they been 
considered of different sects? Because each 
has attacked or defended words ; and the things 
which those words were intended to convey a 
notion of, have not been duly considered; and 
then, when controversy once begins, and passion 
enters where placid reasoning alone should find 
place, adieu to the hope of brotherly fellowship ! 
Evil feelings are engendered; the church of 
Christ is split ; and he who endeavours to make 
peace by shewing each party that in the heat of 
dispute both have gone too far, is looked upon 
as lukewarm in the cause, or perhaps as a traitor 
to that very faith which he is endeavouring to 
preserve " in the bond of unity." 

The tradition of the church tells us that when 
the apostle John, sinking under the pressure of 
years and infirmity, could no longer preach to 



THEOLOGY. 49 

his converts, he was wont to be carried in a 
chair into the midst of them, where he pro- 
nounced simply these words, " Children, love 
one another." If this was the last lesson of the 
disciple " whom Jesus loved," of one who had 
heard the gracious words of Him who " spake 
as never man spake," surely we shall do well to 
remember that "brotherly love" is orthodoxy, 
and that charitable indulgence, not unmeasured 
zeal, is " the fulfilling of the law." 




PSYCHOLOGY. 

IF Theology has been embarrassed by inade- 
quate conceptions of the nature of the Self- 
Existent, Psychology has suffered no less from \ 
confined notions of the nature of man. Though 
it has been very generally believed that this 
nature is compound, and though the words 
' soul' and ' body' are in every one's mouth, yet 
we find no distinct ideas respecting the functions 
of each, even among those who are the most 
decided in their assertion that such are the 
component parts of man. We find no great 
laws established by experimental proof, as in 
other sciences; no accurate classification; and 
he who, without a previously formed theory of 
his own to guide him through the labyrinth, 
should take up any of the works professedly 
written to explain the subject, would very 
probably find himself more bewildered when he 
had finished than when he began. 

When a science is in this state of chaotic 



52 PSYCHOLOGY. 

disorder, there is no chance of progress ; the 
very first step towards its advancement, there- 
fore, must be a classification which may at least 
reduce the subjects it embraces to something 
like arrangement. It may be imperfect, it may 
even be erroneous ; but at any rate, the objects 
requiring attention will have been disentangled 
from each other, and so placed that they may 
be viewed separately, and examined on all sides ; 
it is easy then to shift their position if, after 
such examination, it should appear necessary. • 
But the very thing which makes classification 
needful makes it also difficult. Whoever may 
attempt it will be met by his contemporaries 
with the taunt, " What new sense has been 
given to you, that you imagine yourself able to 
do what abler minds have not accomplished ? " 
Those who think that the adytum of the temple 
ought to be dark, or lighted only by the torch 
of the mystagogue for the entrance of the 
initiated, will denounce the endeavour to admit 
daylight as a sacrilege. What have the people 
to do in such matters ? and what can a Pariah 
know of them ? All this and more must be 
expected, but it alters not the case ; a first step 
must be made, or a second never can be : and 
if the people, the multitude, the ot 7ro\koi, (I 



PSYCHOLOGY. 53 

care not by what term of contempt I and my 
compeers may be denominated), if the masses, I 
say, are to be what God made them to be, some- 
thing more must be done than to tell them that 
they have instinctive feelings given them by a 
benevolent Deity, which it is a sin to indulge ; 
for which reason severe laws abridge their 
gratification as far as possible : and that they 
have a soul destined for an immortality of 
spiritual enjoyment which they have no means 
* given them of preparing for ; something more 
than this, I repeat, is needful to make us fit 
denizens of heaven : we must know how much 
of what we now feel is to go with us beyond the 
grave, how far it is to be controlled ; how far 
indulged. We must in short ascertain the 
boundary line between the animal and the im- 
mortal nature, and this must be done, not for 
the few who have grown pale over their mid- 
night studies, but for the many, for those who 
can only snatch a moment from the labours of 
the day for a short book, and whose toil has 
made them sleep too soundly at night to allow 
of long speculations. The philosophy of the 
multitude must be as brief as it is practical. 

We begin with a slight classification of the 
phoenomena of man's nature into 



54 PSYCHOLOGY. 

1. The instinctive emotions and appetites. 

2. The faculties. 

3. The will. 

And I assumed that as the two first partook of 
the changes which the body undergoes, they 
were bodily; but that as the individual and 
intelligent will partakes of none of these changes, 
it was of a different nature. Had we never 
heard of soul and body, so marked a distinction 
in phoenomena would have led us to look for a 
double principle to cause it; and I therefore 
propose to reduce man's nature to its ultimate 
elements, by arranging the whole under two 
simple divisions. 

I. Material and animal functions subjected to 
bodily change and subdivided into 

1. Appetites. 

2. Instinctive emotions. 

3. Faculties. 

II. Spiritual and unchanging functions. 
The latter division only is, strictly speaking, 

the province of Psychology : but in a nature so 
intimately blended, the one part so influences 
the other, that a system which should leave out 
either would be very imperfect. I therefore 
proceed to consider, 



PSYCHOLOGY, 55 

I. Material and animal functions subjected to 
bodily change. 

1. I need not waste time in proving that 
appetites, such as hunger and the like, are a 
part of our bodily and animal nature. No one 
denies it ; and whoever should doubt it might 
soon be convinced by trying the experiment 
of preventing their gratification. Man would 
perish from the earth under such a regimen. 

2. There has been more doubt as to what I 
here call the instinctive emotions : anger, fear, 
-and many other emotions of this kind have 
generally been termed passions, and referred to 
the soul for their origin ; but when it is con- 
sidered that they arise involuntarily in the first 
instance, and are attended with such a change in 
the circulation and other bodily functions as to 
disorder the health, and even in some instances 
to cause instant death, and when moreover it is 
considered that these so-called passions are 
requisite to the preservation and well-being of 
the species (for anger impels us to self-defence, 
fear to the avoidance of danger, &c), we shall 
be justified, I think, in giving them the appel- 
lation I have done ; since though passion, if we 
take it in the strict sense, means only a thing 



56 PSYCHOLOGY. 

suffered passively ; yet in common parlance it 
has been strangely confounded in its meaning, 
and is not unfrequently so used as to signify a 
thing done actively. Of course from this class 
of instinctive emotions must be rejected some of 
the feelings hitherto classed among passions, such 
as Hope, which is attended with no bodily dis- 
order, and has therefore no claim to the title of 
passion, or a thing suffered. It will not be 
necessary to specify every one of the emotions 
thus to be classed; it is so easy to examine 
whether any bodily disorder is ever occasioned 
by it or not, that none can be at a loss in 
determining the question. 

3. The faculties have been variously con- 
sidered by different writers : but as a recapitu- 
lation of their opinions would take much space, 
those who wish to know what they are must 
consult their works. Pursuing the enquiry on 
the same ground that I have taken with respect 
to the instinctive emotions, I find clear indica- 
tions of bodily origin in the fatigue occasioned 
to the brain by their exercise, the necessity for 
repose ere they can again be set to work, their 
complete derangement by bodily disease, their 
debility in the last decrepitude of age. We 
need hardly ask the physiologist for his assistance 



PSYCHOLOGY. 57 

here ; common observation suffices for this 
conclusion. And here we may notice, that as 
the instinctive emotions are requisite for the 
preservation of the animal, so also are the 
faculties in a certain degree ; for though the 
combinations effected in the brain may be 
applied to other purposes, which I shall presently 
speak of, yet the first and most obvious use is in 
the ministering to bodily needs ; contrivances 
for defence, for shelter, for procuring food, and 
the result of such combinations, and unarmed as 
man is, with natural covering or natural weapons, 
it is evident that without these contrivances 
the species would soon perish. Thus far there- 
fore we have a mere animal with the properties 
*and capacities requisite for his preservation. 

II. Spiritual or unchanging functions. 

These appear to be two : i. e. the intelligent 
will and that species of memory which forms 
the consciousness of identity, and which (how- 
ever ordinary recollections may be impaired by 
the injury or disease of the brain) never suffers 
any change from infancy to death, and even in 
sleep remains unaltered. 

We have as yet considered man as an animal 
only, and have seen all parts of his frame act- 
ing harmoniously together ; the appetites, and 



t^y^y^ 



58 PSYCHOLOGY. 

the involuntary or instinctive emotions by turns 
stimulating the faculties to provide for the 
needs of the body, these faculties being opera- 
tions of the brain, and therefore coming within 
reach of the mechanical action of the system. 
But another power now enters upon the scene, 
and, for good or for evil, not unfrequently 
thwarts and disorders the whole. The instinctive 
emotions, which in themselves are evanescent, 
are wrought up by this untiring energy into 
permanent affections. The faculties which 
naturally only act under the stimulus of bodily 
w r ants, that is to say under the impulses 
mechanically conveyed to the brain, are now 
seized upon by this restless inquisitive power, 
and compelled, in spite of fatigue, and even 
utter derangement of health in consequence, to 
minister to its requisitions, and supply it with 
the information it wants ; untired, unchanging, 
it drags on its weary slave with A^mitigable 
determination, till at last it scornfully casts it 
into the grave as no longer fit for its purpose, 
and asks for other worlds and ages yet to come 
to satisfy its impatient longings for wisdom or 
for enjoyment. But though when speaking of 
functions I have divided them into two, as 
manifesting themselves differently, it is clear 



PSYCHOLOGY. 59 

that they proceed from one principle ; it is the 
conscious individual essence which pours itself 
forth in this energetic and unwearied activity, 
and is able, when it knows its powers, to ap- 
propriate to its own purposes the whole of the 
unrivalled machinery placed within its reach. 

But though this nice mechanism is capable of 
responding to the touch of that power within, 
which makes man so godlike when his nature 
has its full play, it is too frequently left at the 
mercy of outward impressions, and remains the 
mere animal to the last ; for we have already 
seen that the exertion of the intelligent will 
over the bodily functions is not requisite to 
their performance so as to preserve life. Man 
may exist as an animal or at least very little 
removed from that state, and when the brain 
has never been exercised in those nicer opera- 
tions which the individual essence can at its 
choice require from it, it becomes as unfit for 
use as the hands of a Hindoo devotee when he has 
resolutely kept them shut for ten years together. 
Active use is the necessary condition for keeping 
any bodily fibre in a healthy and serviceable 
state ; and we see that this active use is stimu- 
lated by the sensations from without, which at our 
first entrance into the world are so abundant in 



60 PSYCHOLOGY. 

all directions. The first impulse of the child 
is a restless curiosity, and at the same time an 
endeavour to combine and arrange ideas from 
what he sees and hears. Sensation has done 
its work ; the brain has perceived ; the individual 
is beginning to discover the organ it has at its 
command, and it is already directing it to the 
enquiries needful for its information, but too 
frequently the child has no one who can reply 
to his enquiries : he gets weary of useless 
question, or is reproved for it; the brain 
consequently becomes inactive as to all its 
higher functions, and no farther progress is 
made. The will is either not exerted at all (for 
the mere action of nerves of voluntary motion 
stimulated by sensation must not be confounded 
with the ruling individual will), or if it be 
exerted, having no longer power over the 
faculties so as to acquire useful information, its 
whole energy is devoted to the giving force and 
percnanence to the instinctive emotions, which 
being involuntary never can slumber, as the 
faculties are wont to do. The man becomes 
thus the creature of passion, and that immaterial 
essence which, should have been the guide to 
all that is excellent and noble in knowledge and 
in feeling, panders only to the impulses of the 



PSYCHOLOGY. 61 

body, and degrades itself from its high dignity 
merely to sink both below the level of the 
brute, for the brute when the appetite is satisfied 
goes no farther ; but bring the intelligent will 
once to aid, and the jaded appetite is pampered 
and stimulated, fresh excitement is sought, and 
the body is at last worn out by the endeavours 
of its unwearied ally to minister to its gratifi- 
cation. 

In cases of idiocy it is evident that the brain 
never has attained a sufficient power for sup- 
plying the individual will with the information 
it needs ; but the proverbial obstinacy of idiotic 
persons shews that this power is as strong in 
them as in others ; and were a careful training 
given to such children, it would be found that 
they are capable of much more than is supposed. 
I knew a family in humble life, some years ago, 
where three of the children were thus afflicted ; 
two of them were trained as persons in that 
rank usually are, to labour, and attend the 
church on Sunday. The third, and youngest, 
was the mother's darling, and nothing was re- 
quired of him. The first two remained weak 
in intellect, but capable of performing many 
manual labours ; were honest and industrious 
in their way, and were conscientious in the 



62 PSYCHOLOGY. 

discharge of these humble duties. The third 
was the reckless, spiteful idiot too often seen. 

Again, in insanity we find a no less resolute 
will, but misled by the false report of the brain, 
it is devoted to useless or mischievous purposes ; 
and here too it is probable, that were the office 
of the brain, of the instinctive emotions, and 
the ruling will duly distinguished, this most 
miserable of all calamities might be either 
wholly averted or greatly mitigated. Its origin 
is either in a diseased state of the brain, from 
injury, or the violent action of some instinctive 
emotion, or a devotion of the cerebral power to 
one subject exclusively of all others, till it has 
no longer the power to apply to any but that. 
* Now were the ruling will in the habit of claiming 
that supremacy which it can claim, it seems 
probable that in every one of these instances it 
might, if not prevent the evil wholly (as it 
probably would in the two latter), yet greatly 
mitigate it. Else how is it that we find in cases 
of confirmed insanity the fear of pain will curb 
the fit ; here the will is excited to use its power 
to avoid an evil, and for the time it uses it 
successfully. 

Few know or believe the immense power 
cb which tht undying energy is capable of exercising 



PSYCHOLOGY. 63 

over the body, for it is only now and then that 
it is seen in full action; but that it is both 
master of, and evidently different from the 
animal nature, may be sufficiently shewn from 
those instances. For example, when a man 
resolves on putting an end to his existence by 
abstaining from food (and this has been done), 
the tyrannical sway exercised over every sensa- 
tion and craving of the body is complete and 
durable as well as in entire contradiction to 
every impulse of the animal nature. Or if it be 
said that this has been merely the last resort of 
a man wearied out with suffering, let us take 
the case of one hazarding or throwing away his 
own life to save another from perishing. A 
stranger it may be, one f$ whom he has nothing hj^^ 1 - 
to expect, and where he has no incitement but 
the intimate conviction that a higher and a 
nobler nature claims the sacrifice of the mere 
animal. He knows that he is rushing upon 
death, he feels probably some natural shudder 
in doing so ; yet this is overruled, and he goes 
on with his resolute purpose. Take away the 
influence of such a principle within, and half the 
actions of men are utterly unaccountable; for 
it is the natural tendency of all things to accom- 
plish the end of their being; and if it be sentient, 



64 PSYCHOLOGY. 

to be happy in doing so. The plant blossoms 
and bears fruit before it decays, and its life may 
be prolonged by preventing it from blossoming. 
The mere animal eats, drinks, propagates its 
species, and is satisfied; but man is always 
aiming at objects to which his life is frequently 
sacrificed, and no one calls him insane. On 
the contrary in the proportion that he is ready 
with this sacrifice he is honoured and esteemed, 
because every one has an interior consciousness 
that it is what his own nature aspires to. He 
feels that he is now but the larva of himself, and 
that he has a higher career opening before him, 
where all that was beginning to develope itself 
will acquire perfection, where all the gentler 
sympathies of our nature may still find place 
and scope, and from whence the grosser animal 
gratifications alone will be banished along with 
the earthly frame which required them. 



* 

■&■&■$■ 

* 



i^.^^.i^^^^J^J^^^^^^^ 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

« TITHAT is a Religion ? " and "what is a 
▼ ▼ system of Philosophy ? " They are 
two different answers to the questions most 
interesting to man. Examine all the religions 
which have long held sway over the minds of 
men, all the philosophical systems which have 
united under their banner a large portion of 
the enlightened part of mankind, and you will 
find that these religions and their systems have 
one distinction common to both; that they 
have boldly proposed and solved the whole of 
those problems. It is by this character that we 
recognize a really great system, and we may 
truly say that if one of these questions has 
been pretermitted, it is but half a religion or 
half a system of philosophy. Would you have 
an example of the stretch and extent of a great 
religion, look at Christianity ! Ask a Christian 
" whence the human race is derived ?" He can 
tell you. — " What is man's object, and what his 



66 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

destiny ? " He can tell you. Ask a poor child 
from school " why he is here, and what will 
become of him after death ?" He will make you 
an answer full of sublime truths which probably 
he may not half understand, but which are not 
therefore the less admirable. Ask him, " How 
the world was created, and why ? " " How the 
earth has been peopled? why men suffer, and 
how all this will end ?" He can tell. He knows 
the duties of man towards God and towards his 
fellow-men, and when he is older and has learned 
the system more completely, he will not hesitate 
at all more respecting natural, political, and 
national rights; for each of these parts of know- 
ledge flows as naturally from Christianity as 
light from the sun. Such is what I call a great 
system." 

These are the words of a French philosopher 
who himself was not a Christian,* but I can 

* Perhaps I ought rather to say, that disgusted with 
the narrow views of contending sects, he was unable to 
find any one to which he could associate himself, and 
thus, unphilosophic only in this, overlooked his own 
proposition, that great systems, whether of philosophy 
or religion, are only two modes of solving the same 
question, not two solutions ; and that, therefore, he who 
professes a pure and true philosophy is a Christian, 
whether he knows it or not. 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 67 

find no words which would more aptly trace the 
way in which a " great system" must influence 
all the relations of life ; and most truly does he 
pronounce that to be but a half doctrine which 
is incapable of this extended rule over men's 
minds and actions. When, therefore, I come 
to the practical result of a scheme of philosophy 
which walks hand in hand with the "great 
system" which M. JoufFroy has so well described, 
it will not be astonishing if I find myself obliged 
to touch on many points where great differences 
of opinion have existed. To those who mav 
not take the same view of the subject, I can 
only say with Themistocles, " Strike, if you 
please, but hear me." Weigh at least, whether 
there be not some truth that deserves your far- 
ther attention in the propositions which at first 
may seem strange, and perhaps displeasing. 

We have already considered the exterior and 
interior power in their separate nature and func- 
tions : we now come to the mutual relations which 
must subsist between them, and the influence 
these have on man's position, prospects, and 
final destiny. We have seen man endued with 
instincts and faculties purely corporeal in their 
origin and mode of exercise ; and yet, in the 
midst of these corporeal instincts and faculties, 



68 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

we find another power introduced of a different 
nature, capable of diverting them from their 
natural course, and exercising an almost illimit- 
able sway over them ; like the musical instru- 
ments which by their regular machinery can 
produce a set number of tunes, but yet have 
keys annexed by which a skilful player can 
produce harmony at his will : and this complex 
nature of man is the work of a Being who, 
having all-power and all-knowledge, must do 
what is best for the proposed end. 

If we look through creation in every instance 
where we have an opportunity of watching the 
operations of nature^ as writers on such subjects 
are wont to say, or as I should say, of the 
Framer of nature, we find no substance formed 
with particular properties for an especial occa- 
sion, which properties never come into use 
afterwards. Every chemist knows that each 
substance has its peculiar qualities and laws 
which avail equally be it free or in combination, 
be it part of an organized or an unorganized 
body; and that amid all the mutations which 
are continually going on, nothing is wasted, 
nothing so far changed in nature that it cannot 
be resolved again into its component parts, which 
by the same unchanging laws form fresh com- 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 69 

binations, each nevertheless still retaining the 

fundamental character impressed upon it. We 

see too that all organized beings (I am not 

speaking now of man) have exactly those 

qualities, organs, and impulses given them, 

which conduce to the end of their being; which 

end they scarcely ever fail to accomplish : the 

plant, the •&&£, the animal have their different L/nA tc r 

modes of life and production; but they live 

and produce ; no property inherent in them - 

interferes to prevent this. We further see that 

when we have established any great law of 

creation by reasonable induction, we can explain 

hitherto puzzling phenomena by a reference to 

these laws. 

Upon these last grounds, then, I assume that 
man's instincts and faculties are given him for 
purposes of permanent utility extending beyond 
this life: because it is evident that he has a 
property inherent in him, which interferes with, 
and very frequently wholly prevents, the full 
developement of his animal nature ; and therefore 
that animal nature and the period of its duration 
is not all of man. And if any one objects that 
man is in a fallen state, and therefore that these 
instincts and faculties are corrupt, and that we 
are not to look for good but for evil from them, 



A 



70 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

I reply, that those who make this objection 
doubtless will allow that when man came from 
the hands of his Maker, his nature, as well as 
all the rest of the new world, was " very good." 
Now we have already seen that these instincts 
and faculties are corporeal; provided for by a 
very simple and complete mechanism, but still 
by mechanism, as much as the bending of the 
joints or the growth of the body ; then these 
instincts and faculties were in man originally 
such as they now are, excepting in instances 
where they are impaired by disease, and are no 
more corrupt than his bones or his muscles ; 
and it is only when the individual power inter- 
feres to give intensity and duration to these 
animal functions that they run into excess, and 
thus become an evil from the due balance 
between them being overthrown. It is no small 
happiness to the world that these kindly feelings 
which bind man to man are all found among 
the instinctive emotions, which being consequent 
on the very frame of man, and altogether in- 
voluntary in the first instance, are therefore in 
no danger of being ever wholly stifled ; while 
the sterner part of his nature which we have 
called the faculties, result from cerebral com- 
binations produced by a voluntary act, and 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 71 

therefore subsequent to the first impulse of 
sensation. 

Let us now see how the individual is likely 
to be affected by this corporeal mechanism. He 
enters the world inexperienced and full of wonder 
at the scenes around him, and the first sensation 
that is awakened after that of mere appetite, 
is, love to the parent who cherishes him ; the 
next, grief at the sight of an angry or a sad 
countenance. It is only gradually that the 
brain acquires power for its higher exercises, 
and long ere this has taken place the feelings 
have taught the individual better than the most 
luminous argument could have done, that it is 
good to love those who are kind to us, and to 
avoid exciting their anger or their grief; and 
this is become so habitual, that a deviation 
from the usual course of feeling is painful in 
the first instance. Here then, the very first of 
instinctive emotions, provide a never-failing 
source of happy intercourse ; and there is so 
much pleasure in yielding to them, that nothing 
further is requisite than a curbing power. The 
individual readily abandons himself to the gentle 
influence ; but he may follow it too far, A 
parent or a companion may ask a wrong com- 
pliance : it is then that the intelligent will may 



72 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

call in the aid of the faculties to combine argu- 
ments, and weigh consequences ; and, sitting 
like a sovereign at his council board, finally 
resolve, that the petitioning feeling ought not 
to be attended to. How soon the brain shall 
be capable of thus giving counsel, depends on 
the wholesome exercise it has had; for where 
no stores of knowledge have been laid up, 
arguments cannot be found; and where the 
habit has not been acquired by daily use, com- 
binations of ideas are formed with difficulty. 
It would seem that mere sensation had found 
itself the straightest road, and that the more com- 
plex convolutions in which (according to some) 
memory and the higher reasoning faculties are 
exercised, were so unaccustomed to be called 
into use, that the parts were grown stiff and 
inactive ; nay, as we see that size and strength 
of limb is only gained by exercise, it is not 
impossible that a brain never called into use 
may not even have its full proportions ; and 
thus, from neglect in childhood, a physical 
incapacity may be engendered. Suppose this 
the case, and that either from want of exer- 
cise or of power, the faculties in their higher, 
uses are not duly developed, it follows that 
the individual will (having no guide but the 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 73 

emotions), will follow them blindly, they them- 
selves being but a blind impulse, and when 
<; the blind lead the blind, both fall into the 
ditch." But this is no corruption of nature,* all 
these functions are useful and good in them- 
selves, it is merely a neglect of one part which 
throws the rest off their balance. 

Let us now suppose that the faculties having 
been cultivated to the utmost, the will has 
listened to them almost exclusively : a harsh 
character will be engendered; for no human 
being is perfect, and if we bestow our regard 
only in the ratio of specific merit, we shall 
seldom find enough excellence to meet our 
notice to justify any large share of it. It is 
then that a yet more powerful instinct steps in : 
love between the sexes teaches at once the 
generous self-devotion which the combinations of 
rational argument might have been long in 
inculcating, and perhaps have attempted ineffec- 
tually ; and all the gentler social relations arise 
out of it to sweeten life, and give a yet higher 
scope to our wishes ; for who that truly loves 
will be satisfied that the union shall be broken at 
the gates of the grave, which has been so sweet 
a one through life ? And how often do we see 
that he who cared not if his loose companions 



74 PRACTICAL RESULTS, 

looked upon his vices, has shrunk from, and 
perhaps quitted them, when he thought of the 
innocent child whom he could not bear to con- 
taminate ! And thus we see two kinds of animal 
functions mutually balancing each other, uniting 
to school the individual will to all that is amiable 
and exalted. The instinctive emotions softening 
the sternness of the faculties, the faculties curbing 
the animal force of the emotions, and the will, 
impelled by the solicitations of the one, and guided 
by the information and caution of the other, 
acquiring by degrees those habits of judging 
and feeling rightly, which qualify man for the 
spiritual felicity of his Creator. He has learned 
the enjoyment of benevolence and the excellence 
of knowledge, and his heaven is already begun 
on this side the tomb ; and thus, though these 
emotions and these faculties may cease with the 
bodily mechanism which causes them, they have 
stamped their impress on the individual, like 
metal poured from the furnace into a mould, 
which retains for ever the form so acquired, 
though the mould be but of earth : the will has 
acquired the character it will carry with it into 
eternity though the mould in which it was cast 
be returned to its dust. 

Can the Christian who holds Philosophy to 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 75 

be " foolishness/' deny that these warm though 
instinctive emotions, these aspiring faculties, 
are in exact conformity with the rule he 
acknowledges ? The God who made man was 
not so limited in power or knowledge, or so 
wanting in benevolence, as to have given him 
properties unfitted for the fulfilment of his high 
destiny. The Saviour himself has pronounced 
that a man shall leave all else to " cleave to 
his wife." He has given as the badge of his 
followers, that they should " love one another." 
As the rule of our life, that we should strive 
to be " perfect, as our Father in heaven is 
perfect." We look into our hearts and we find 
that we are naturally led to love the woman of 
our choice, beyond all other things; that we 
cannot be happy or even retain a sane mind 
and healthy body without social intercourse, 
and that we aspire to knowledge, to greatness, 
to immortality, to perfection, in short with a 
longing that is never satisfied in this life, 
yet never wholly subdued. Is that philosophy 
foolishness, which by rational argument de- 
duces the truths of the gospel from the very 
nature of things, and thus leaves no room for 
hesitation or disbelief ? 



76 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

But if this be the case — if a due balance of 
instincts and faculties be needful to school the 
Will, so as to fit it for the only felicity suited to 
its nature — what sort of training ought man 
to have, and what must be the sensations of one 
who feels this truth deeply, when he looks round 
on the habits and maxims of society, and the 
principles on which legislation is too generally 
founded ? " The poor man must learn to 
restrain his passions," say political economists ; 
let them first define what passion means. It is 
convenient when an ambiguous term hides, 
instead of explaining the intention ; and this 
well-sounding term means, that, because it suits 
those who have the power, to retain the soil as 
their own property, therefore the man who is 
debarred from any share of it, is to be de- 
barred also from the due perfection of his 
nature. Those very instincts given to mould 
it to benevolence and kindness are to be rooted 
out, or if God be stronger than man and this 
endeavour fail, they are to be made instruments 
of evil instead of good, and what would have 
been the parent of all the lovely social affections 
is to become the mere appetite of the brute, 
indulged when the animal nature is importunate, 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 77 

but so indulged as to degrade and deteriorate, 
instead of improving the individual. 

" We must have servants and labourers, 
hewers of wood and drawers of water," say the 
rich and the luxurious ; " it is therefore idle to 
teach the poor what will only set them above 
their work." I only ask, does it so really? 
Where are the instances of the real lover of 
intellectual improvement, who has been in- 
efficient in what he has undertaken ? But 
suppose it were as is objected, suppose a few 
hours were lost, or a few shillings spent on 
intellectual pleasures — do we never see either 
one or the other wasted at the beer house ? And 
which is the better way of spending them? 
But setting aside all this, setting aside (what 
I have always found) that mental cultivation 
strengthens our power for whatever we under- 
take, I ask again, what right have you to cramp 
and stifle the intellectual faculties of a large 
portion of your fellow creatures, in order that 
you may purchase their bodily labour, even 
supposing that you could no otherwise secure 
it ? To rob men of the best gift God has given 
them, in order that you may " fare sumptuously 
every day," and " be clothed in purple and fine 



70 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

linen." The mutes of the seraglio were deprived 
of the power of speech, that they might not tell 
the secrets of their master. Would you con- 
demn as cruelty the depriving a child of one 
bodily organ, and yet justify the cramping the 
whole system of mental powers, merely that 
there may be a Pariah caste ? A Helot race 
who shall never rise above the soil they tread 
on, and look up to their masters as to beings of 
another species? If such were to be the en- 
during state of society, there would be some 
justification for those who might strive to over- 
turn all existing institutions, in the hope that 
human nature would find means to assert its 
rights in the confusion. Such are not the 
lessons of the gospel, for " there is no respect 
of persons" before God, and probably never till 
now, and in this so called free-land of England, 
was the distinction of rank made to press so 
heavily on the poor man. The slave in Greece 
and Rome was in some things better off. He 
was instructed, that he might be serviceable ; 
and finished not unfrequently by being the 
friend and companion of his master as his freed 
man. The mistress and her female slave sate 
and spun together. In the modern states of 
continental Europe even, the servant or the 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. . 79 

labourer enjoys a certain degree of familiarity ; 
and is in consequence more contented though 
poorer. The increase of riches and refinement 
in England has given the upper classes a cha- 
racter of their own, and with a selfish exclusive- 
ness they wish to retain this distinction ; and 
with an instinctive feeling that intellectual 
strength is power, however the maxim may 
have been hackneyed and ridiculed, they hide 
from their own hearts even the uneasy dread 
of being encroached on, under the specious 
argument that for the poor man his bible suffices. 
A blessed and cheering book it is, doubtless ; 
but how much richer a harvest of useful precept 
does it afford to those whose minds have been 
enlarged by further culture ; how many mistakes 
w T ould be avoided if the great principles of Phi- 
losophy were better studied ; how much light 
would be thrown on it if something were known 
of the times, the places where, and the people 
to whom its words were spoken ! The bible 
alone is not enough ; the mind requires relax - 
ation: the commonest events of England raise 
curiosity respecting other lands and habits of 
life ; and the young who hear a sailor narrating 
the wonders of his voyages, or the soldier of his 
campaigns, naturally wish to know something 



80 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

about the things they hear of. Why is innocent 
pleasure to be denied them ? We should have 
a more moral population if amusements of a 
higher and more intellectual character were 
placed within their reach. It is not enough to 
give them food and raiment merely, they feel 
the wish to be respected as men. 

Let me not be misunderstood. I call for no 
agrarian law, no equality, which if established 
to-day, must cease to-morrow, from the very 
difference of individual strength and inclination ; 
but I call for justice, I call upon legislators to 
remember what God remembers, i. e. " whereof 
we are made." I call upon them not to damn 
their immortal fellow- men, by curbing with all 
the force of stringent laws on the one hand, 
and cold neglect on the other, the developement 
of a nature which God looked upon when he 
had made it, and lo, " it was very good." In- 
terested men have parted what ought to have 
been joined. Philosophy and Christianity have 
been severed, and both have been made to speak 
a language foreign from their purpose; but 
though man for a time may obscure those 
eternal verities, it is but like the smoke which 
hides the sun ; the light must break forth again ; 
and let us thank God that it must. 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 81 

It may be asked what I would substitute for 
the order of things I complain of? This is the 
ready way of getting rid of disagreeable repre- 
sentations, yet I will not shrink from this either ; 
but the subject is large enough to require to be 
treated separately, and my business here is with 
the establishment of great principles ; these once 
established, details spring naturally from them. 
I return therefore for the present to man and 
his nature, position, prospects, and final destiny. 

I have assumed (upon what I think sufficient 
ground), that all the phoenomena of our nature 
are to be referred to animal appetite, instinctive 
emotions, faculties, and intelligent will, coupled 
with that memory which constitutes the percep- 
tion of identity; and I have assumed farther, 
that the last class of phoenomena only, can be 
considered as properly belonging to the opera- 
tions of the soul. I have also stated that an 
essential part of the great Self- Existent Cause 
of all things, is a free and governing Will. Man 
therefore in this bears the image of his Maker ; 
and inasmuch as he partakes in a certain degree 
of the nature of his Creator, his happiness and 
his destiny must be of a kind somewhat anal- 
ogous. The felicity of the Creator (as far as 
we can judge) must consist in the constant 

G 



82 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

harmony of his nature with his acts. The will 
to do what is best, and the power to effect it ; or, 
in other words, unbounded knowledge, power, 
and benevolence. Now, though man's finite 
nature can follow but at humble distance, it can 
follow. He may act in conformity to his nature ; 
he may delight in conferring happiness, and in 
seeking knowledge : and I believe all who have 
tried the experiment will bear testimony that 
this course confers even in this life a peace of 
mind, a joy, even in the midst of the turmoils 
of the world, which is more akin to heaven than 
earth. 

Christianity teaches this, but in a simpler 
manner, by precept without argument ; and it 
might therefore seem at first sight that the ar- 
gument was superfluous : but it is not ; for those 
who attend only to the precept are apt to con- 
sider the command to " love our neighbour," to 
" be conformed to Christ," to " be perfect as 
our Father which is in heaven is perfect," and 
the announcement of the misery that would 
attend the neglect of these commands, as 
merely arbitrary laws, established by the Cre- 
ator for reasons known only to himself; and 
He is thus made to appear as a despotic sove- 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 88 

reign, to be feared because he has power to 
punish the infraction of his laws, rather than 
as an object of grateful and affectionate adora- 
tion, no less for the good he has given, than for 
what he has promised. Take the argument 
with the precept — shew that it is in the nature 
of things that whatever felicity an intellectual 
being is capable of, must be akin to that enjoyed 
by the Deity; and that therefore if we seek 
happiness in any other direction, we shall neces- 
sarily fail of our object — and we immediately 
see the fatherly kindness of the command; and 
the very announcement that any other course 
would be attended with perdurable misery, 
instead of appearing in the light of a vindictive 
denunciation of punishment, shews itself to be 
what it really is — the caution of an affectionate 
and anxious parent, who 

" metuensque moneret 
Acres esse viros, cum dura praelia gente ;" 

and does not send forth his child to the combat 
till he has given him every counsel and provided 
him with every defence which the fondest con- 
cern could dictate. 

This is not, I am aware, the most usual mode 



84 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

of viewing the subject, and it is perhaps because 
it is not, that our religion is frequently cold and 
unprofitable. If the conforming our will to the 
will of the Deity, or, in other words, the finding 
our pleasure in the same objects, be requisite to 
our happiness, it is clear that/ear will be a very 
ineffectual agent in the business. We may 
choose a certain course of action because we 
dread the punishment consequent on the con- 
trary course, but we shall not do so because it 
is a pleasure to us. The mere Theologian will 
allow that this is not the state of mind which 
the true Christian should aim at, for says St. 
John, " Perfect love casteth out fear;" and 
nothing can be juster than the distinction made 
by the late Alexander Knox, between the im- 
perfect Christian who fears, and the perfect one 
who loves ; for as the doing an act under the 
dread of punishment is but a yielding of the 
will to one of the least exalted of the animal 
emotions, so it tends very little, if at all, to the 
amelioration of the character. The evil actions 
which might engender evil habits have been 
avoided, but we have accustomed ourselves to 
be actuated by a cowardly motive which a great 
mind ought to despise, and a Christian to 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 85 

eschew. Added to all this, the emotion which 
is the foundation of this kind of virtue is of 
a painful nature, and therefore another instinctive 
emotion, that of shrinking from present suffering 
very quickly counteracts it ; for in proportion 
as the fear is great, will be the effort of nature 
to allay or stifle it ; thus the small influence it 
exercises over the will is transitory also. 

It is no new discovery of mine that we must 
do what we like, or, in other words, like what 
we do, in order to be happy. All men know 
and act upon this principle ; can we suppose it 
unknown to Him who made us ? and can we 
suppose also, that knowing the conformity of our 
will to His to be our happiness, He would take 
by preference so inadequate an agent as fear, 
to lead us to identify ourselves with Him ? for 
this identity of will with the Deity (it cannot be 
too often repeated) is the sum and substance of 
religion as well as of philosophy. We are to 
become, as it were, a part of the Divine essence ; 
his children ; one in our interests, our affec- 
tions, our designs : and thus identified with 
the Father of our love, we have his wisdom for 
our guide, his power to effect our utmost desires. 
A religion made up of terrors offers no attraction ; 



86 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

we only half believe it ; for it is repugnant to all 
our rational and instinctive feelings, it is un- 
lovely; we cannot cherish it in our hearts as 
the source of happiness, or keep it beside us in 
our lighter hours as our companion and guide. 
On the contrary, the philosophic view being in 
itself pleasant, never seems importunate or mis- 
placed : it lays hold on our feelings, and dwells 
with them till it becomes a constant principle of 
action. It is rational, and satisfies the intellect ; 
and the will thus learning to love what is both 
agreeable and wise, all inclination to any other 
course disappears. We feel that by pursuing 
a different one we should be unhappy; for it is 
not till we have depraved our nature that we 
make even a step in the wrong path without 
pain, and what at first was weighed and judged 
fitting, becomes at last so habitual that we may 
act almost without reflection, and act right. 

There is always one great obstacle to the 
reception of the simple religion or philosophy 
(for I know no difference between them), taught 
by Christ during his ministry on earth ; it is its 
very simplicity. It is hard to persuade men 
that it is not some " great thing" that is re- 
quired of them, like Naaman, who despised the 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 87 

order to " wash and be clean" of his leprosy. 
Yet it is this simplicity, this conformity to com- 
mon sense and common feeling, which proves 
its divinity the most decidedly ; for the law, and 
the nature to be governed by that law, have 
evidently been the work of the same hand. 
" Est enim virtus nihil aliud quam in se perfecta 
et ad summum perducta natura," said the Roman 
philosopher long ago, and it is a truth well worth 
remembering. The same objection that is now 
made to the rational views of Christianity, viz., 
that it makes its professors men of this world, 
was made to its first great teacher ; " Behold, a 
glutton and a wine-bibber, a friend of publicans 
and sinners." Yet when the Saviour thought 
it not beneath him to sit at the table of Zaccheus 
at what we should now call a large dinner 
party, it is evident that no sour restraints are 
imposed on the Christian, even if he have never 
heard of any rule of life but the following His 
steps who was sent to be an example for us. 
The Saviour did not sit at that table in vain; 
we hear of no severe reproofs ; no stern lecture ; 
but he who knew well what man's affections 
could do, won the heart of Zaccheus. " The 
half of my goods I give to the poor, and if I 



88 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

have done any wrong to any man, I restore him 
fourfold," was the resolution taken by the giver 
of the feast at that dinner ; and it is thus that 
the servant of Christ, the philosopher in the 
true sense of the word — for what is love of 
wisdom but love of the wisdom or \oyog of 
God? — it is thus, I say, that the servant of 
Christ may move in the world blessing and 
blessed. Polished, eloquent, dignified, Christ 
exhibited, amid the world which he did not 
fly from, a pattern of every thing that was 
attractive in man. So may and so should the 
Christian, and thus sanctify and purify society 
by his presence and example, till the precepts 
of our great Master become its precepts also ; 
till forgiveness of injuries and purity of life 
be thought as necessary to the character of a 
gentleman, as truth is even now ; till amuse- 
ments and business, trade and politics, shall 
alike own the healing influence, and " the king- 
doms of the world" become what (notwithstanding 
the boastful title of Christendom *), they never 
have been yet, " the kingdoms of God and of his 
Christ." 

* The domain of Christ. 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 89 

It was the pure philosophy of Christianity, 
its exact accordance with every want and wish 
of our nature, that spread the doctrine of the 
poor fishermen of Galilee through the palaces 
and the schools, no less than the shops and the 
farms, of Greece and Rome. It has now ceased 
to spread, and why? Is it not because its 
Philosophy is forgotten? Is it not that by 
being made to consist in a certain set of mys- 
terious dogmata which it is almost forbidden to 
examine, it is put on a level with those false 
systems which shrink from the light because 
they know they will suffer from being seen 
when exposed to it? It was not thus that 
Christianity was first preached to the world. 
Its teachers and its martyrs appealed to its 
rationality, to its accordance with the highest 
conceptions of the wisest and the best of the 
Grecian sages. They contrasted its purity with 
the abominations of Paganism ; the brotherly 
love of its followers, with the ferocity, treachery 
and hatred of the rest of the world; they 
shewed that there must be a God, and that He 
could be no other than they described. The 
Eternal God, said they, must be essentially 
rational. Exerted or not, the wisdom to know, 



90 PRACTICAL RESULTS. 

and the power to act must be co-eternal in him. 
We do not worship two Gods, as you object to 
us ; the \oyog (rational faculty) of God, ani- 
mated a human form, and spoke to us through 
human lips, " God w 7 as in Christ reconciling the 
world to himself," and him we worship. We do 
not say that our God suffered or died. The 
body which he wore as a raiment was sacrificed, 
bat God is impassible, one Self-existent 
Eternal mind.* It was thus that the early 
apologists for Christianity explained its tenets 
to the Pagan world; and the Pagan world 
received them. What have we gained by 
abandoning the philosophy of these Martyrs of 
the truth ? We have abundance of technical 
terms ; but have we the Spirit of the Gospel ? 
Do we bear the badge of Christ, " hereby shall 
men know that ye are my disciples, that ye love 
one another ?" If we do not, if rich and poor, 
Dissenter and Churchman, Romanist and So- 
cinian, are as it were separate classes that hold 
no fellowship together — then is our Christianity 
as faulty as our philosophy — we have " the form 
of Godliness," but not " the power thereof," 



1"H 

* Vide Tertullian, Athenagoras, Amobius, &c. &c. 



PRACTICAL RESULTS. 91 

and however we may boast " the temple of the 
Lord" (and, blessed be God, it does yet afford 
shelter to some whom their Lord at his coming 
will own as his true disciples), we may find at 
last that phrases are of less importance than 
motives ; and see (Heaven grant that it may 
not be too late !) that " God is no respecter of 
persons," but that " in every nation he that 
feareth him and worketh righteousness is ac- 
cepted with him." 



FINIS. 



C. WHITTINGHAM, CHISWICK. 









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